The Medical Revolution of Andrew Taylor Still: Pioneer of Osteopathy in an Age of Medical Change

The Extraordinary Journey of Andrew Taylor Still: From Traditional Medicine to the Foundation of Osteopathy

Like other medical visionaries, Andrew Taylor Still, the founder of osteopathy, sought recognition as an original thinker. In his autobiography, Still claimed that the principles of his approach came to him in a single moment of inspiration. He believed that most diseases were caused by spinal displacements, and eliminating them through spinal manipulation would relieve symptoms elsewhere in the body. Despite later modifications to this interpretation, his followers have failed to adequately identify the intellectual currents shaping his thought.

Still, born August 6, 1828, in Jonesville, Virginia, was the third of nine children. His father, Abrahamm, had been a Methodist preacher but turned to farming and medicine to support his family. The family moved to New Market, Tennessee, in 1834, when Abram accepted a preaching position.

A colleague described Abram’s sermons as “simple, direct and practical.” This was the highest praise a backwoods Methodist minister could receive, for Methodists at the time did not regard the term “plain” as synonymous with boring: they practiced a fervent style of religion and devotion to the salvation of souls which, today, would be barely recognizable for this denomination. The Methodist preachers of Abram’s day wore dark garments; their steely gazes did not waver in the face of evil, and they were a commanding presence in the lawless environment of the American frontier. Abram and his colleagues were nicknamed the “sons of thunder” because of their fiery preaching, terrifying descriptions of hell, and colorful interpretations of Judgment Day. Imaginary lightning and thunder flashed around their open-air field pulpits as they battled the Devil and the forces of evil in a forest setting, lit eerily by flickering pine torches. Their self-taught vocabulary conjured up images so frightening that many children did not dare.

In the early 19th century, Methodist ministers traveled circuits, covering large geographic areas. Andrew’s education was marked by moves and interruptions, with periods of formal education from 1842 to 1848.

The family’s life as circuit riders was difficult, with frequent moves and insufficient income from the church. Andrew, as a child, took care of household chores and hunting, sometimes accompanying his father on ministerial tours and participating in religious revivals. In 1851, Abraham was appointed a missionary to the Kansas Territory, and Andrew, after marrying and starting a family, joined his parents at the Wakarusa Mission, opting for medicine as a career.

Growing up as the son of a circuit racer was no easy feat; the family had to endure constant moving and struggled with financial instability due to meager income from the church. However, despite the challenges, Andrew’s upbringing instilled in him a sense of responsibility and a strong work ethic from a young age.

Mother: Martha Hill Still

Andrew Still’s mother, Martha Hill Still, played a crucial role in the life of his family, particularly in the raising of her nine children, of whom Andrew was the third. Although less well known than her husband, Abraham Still, Martha was a loving and devoted figure who contributed to the education and well-being of her children despite the challenges of life in 19th-century rural America.

As the wife of a Methodist preacher, Martha shared the challenges and responsibilities inherent in her husband’s itinerant life. With him, she moved several times, following the duties and calls of his ministry. These frequent moves and the resulting interruptions undoubtedly had an impact on the children’s education, including Andrew’s.

Despite hardship and displacement, Martha strove to maintain some stability in family life, providing a warm home and emotional support for her children. She was perhaps the pillar on which the Still family rested during times of transition and uncertainty.

Although history may have less documented Martha’s role compared to that of Abraham, it is likely that she was a quiet and essential force in the lives of her son Andrew and his family as a whole . His legacy is perhaps reflected in the compassion and dedication that Andrew Still later brought to his medical practice and the founding of osteopathy.

As a child, Andrew found himself taking on significant household responsibilities alongside his studies. He learned to help with various tasks and went on hunting expeditions to support his family. Additionally, he often accompanied his father on ministerial tours, becoming familiar with the rigors of religious work and participating in fervent religious revivals that were common at the time.

In 1851, Abraham Still received an important appointment as a missionary in the Kansas Territory. This pivotal moment in the family’s life prompted a major transition, as they once again uprooted themselves to embark on a new chapter in their missionary efforts. Andrew, now a young adult, had already started thinking about his future. Despite the family’s dedication to religious service, Andrew made the decision to pursue another vocation: medicine.

Slavery and Methodism

Abraham, like most early Methodist preachers in the Holston Circuit, had strong antislavery sentiments. Wesley’s rules emphasized human brotherhood, and preachers exhorted their members to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and visit the sick. Additionally, drinking spirits, charging excessive interest, playing cards, dancing, wearing jewelry, and owning and trading slaves were discouraged. During these early years, the Methodist Church made noble attempts to eliminate slavery from the ranks of its clergy and members, but church leaders found their plans thwarted as the divisive issue became a Southern institution. Increasingly, Southern preachers found that taking a stand against slavery was easier than enforcing it. Those who preached an antislavery message often found that they were unpopular enough that it became difficult to obtain food or shelter.

In 1804, the General Conference suspended the entire section of its Discipleship that regulated slavery for the South, thereby avoiding the issue nationally for a time. Twelve years later, as Methodism celebrated its phenomenal growth, the General Conference committee on slavery seemed to put an end to the problem by declaring: “Under the present circumstances concerning slavery, little can be done to abolish the practice , if contrary to the principles of moral justice. » The conference adopted the committee’s report, but the growing schism that divided the Church could not be so easily put aside.

Lively debates in Holston

Abraham was one of nineteen men admitted to the Tennessee Conference in 1818, and that year the conference was unusually quiet on the issue of slavery, preferring to interpret the rule as concerning not the possession of slaves, but the slave trade. However, when the antislavery faction of the Tennessee Conference gained a five-vote majority the following year, debate gave way to action. Abram began his mission in the Tazewell Circuit amid heated controversy. A slave owner was not admitted as a preacher, and other members who were slave owners were expelled. Under the leadership of Holston preacher James Axley, slave-owning members were even denied the right to lead prayer services. The conference’s pro-slavery preachers instigated a movement to neutralize these anti-slavery activities, ultimately persuading the Church to remove the power to enforce anti-slavery regulations from local conferences. With the “thorny issue” removed from its jurisdiction, the Tennessee Conference experienced growth. Over the next two years, Methodist membership in Holston increased by 60 percent. After a year of service in the Tazewell circuit, Abram’s annual assignments expanded to include the Little River, Clinch and Holston circuits. He was ordained a deacon in 1821. When their first child, Edward Cox, was born in Tazewell County in 1824, Abram followed the pattern of most itinerant preachers, “settling down” soon after marriage. During 1824, Abram and other preachers in West Virginia and East Tennessee formed the Holston Conference. As a result, Abram was not “fixed” for long but did not lose his ties to the conference. He was ordained an elder by Bishop Joshua Soule in 1825, and the family settled in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains near the county seat of Jonesville in Lee County, Virginia. The Stills purchased five hundred acres for two hundred dollars, and for ten years Abram farmed, preached, and followed the Wesleyan tradition of practicing medicine to supplement his income.

The Calomel Controversy: Between Heroic Medicine and the Dangers of Mercury

Benjamin Rush maintained that fever alone, by causing tension in the blood vessels, was the cause of disease. He concluded that the safest remedy would be to relieve this tension through the ancient techniques of bleeding and purging the stomach and intestines. Rush’s system was called heroic medicine, and it certainly took courage to endure this therapy, as patients were bled unconscious and purged with calomel (mercuric chloride) until they showed signs of illness. mercurial poisoning or begin to salivate. From the University of Pennsylvania where Rush taught from 1768 until his death in 1813, Rush’s influence spread across the country, propelled by his own prolific writings and by former students who later taught the heroic therapies in other medical schools. From 1780 to 1850, this system dominated American medical thought and practice.

When Abram Still began practicing medicine, Rush’s heroic therapy was at its peak, but it was not at all popular with every doctor or patient. Calomel, in particular, was ridiculed in popular songs and poems. A touring group in the 1840s, the Hutchisons Chanteurs, discovered that the song “Anti-Calomel” was their most requested number.

And when I have to take my last breath, pray that I die a natural death. And say goodbye to the world forever, without a single dose of Cal-O-Mell.

An unknown poet wrote:

Physicians hear a friendly voice
Receive my counsel, take advice,
Be not offended, tho’ I tell, .
The dire effects of Calomel.’

The dire effects of calomel included the symptoms of mercury poisoning: a gray appearance of the tongue and pharynx, excessive salivation, ulcerated lips, cheeks, and tongues, stomach pain often accompanied by bloody diarrhea, and tooth loss.

In addition to calomel, other toxic pharmaceuticals such as arsenic, antimony, tartar emetic, lobelia, strychnine, and belladonna were commonly used. Only a few useful agents, such as quinine for malaria, colchicine for gout, opium for pain, and digitalis for dropsy, were available. However, these were often used for a variety of ailments beyond their original purposes.

After marrying and starting his own family, Andrew chose to join his parents at the Wakarusa Mission in Kansas Territory. It was here that he began to lay the foundation for his future career in medicine. The decision to pursue medicine may have stemmed from a desire to remedy the physical ailments and suffering he witnessed among settlers in the Kansas Territory, where access to medical care was often limited.

Andrew’s early exposure to the challenges faced by settlers on the frontier undoubtedly influenced his decision to pursue a career in medicine. Difficult living conditions, coupled with a lack of adequate medical services, likely fueled his desire to make a significant difference in the lives of others through the practice of medicine. This marked the beginning of Andrew Taylor Still’s journey to becoming a pioneer in the field of osteopathy, a path that would ultimately revolutionize the practice of medicine and health care.

Joining his parents at the Wakarusa Mission and opting for a career in medicine, Andrew Taylor Still embarked on a path that would deviate from his family’s tradition of religious service. However, his education instilled in him values ​​of compassion, service, and commitment to improving the lives of others – principles that would become fundamental to his groundbreaking work in osteopathy.

The Birth of Osteopathy: Andrew Taylor Still’s Revolutionary Insights

Andrew Taylor Still’s journey towards the founding principles of osteopathy was not a linear path but a culmination of experiences, observations, and critical reflections on the limitations of contemporary medical practices. It was during his early years as a physician, marked by encounters with patients and a quest for more effective treatment modalities, that Still began to formulate his groundbreaking ideas. His upbringing as the son of a Methodist preacher instilled in him a sense of compassion and service, traits that would later define his approach to healthcare.

As a young doctor practicing in the challenging frontier of the Kansas Territory, Still was confronted with the stark realities of disease, injury, and inadequate medical care. Inspired by his desire to alleviate suffering and improve the well-being of his patients, he embarked on a journey of exploration and innovation. Drawing from diverse influences, including his experiences as a circuit rider’s son, his observations of nature, and his study of human anatomy and physiology, Still developed a unique perspective on health and disease.

The pivotal moment in Still’s journey came when he experienced a profound revelation regarding the relationship between spinal alignment and overall health. In a moment of clarity, he recognized that many ailments stemmed from disturbances in the musculoskeletal system, particularly the spine, and that restoring proper alignment could facilitate the body’s innate healing abilities. This insight laid the foundation for osteopathy, a holistic approach to healthcare that prioritized the body’s self-regulating mechanisms and emphasized the interconnectedness of structure and function.

From this initial revelation, Still continued to refine and expand his understanding of osteopathic principles, incorporating elements of manual therapy, nutrition, and lifestyle modifications into his practice. Despite facing skepticism and resistance from the medical establishment, he remained steadfast in his commitment to challenging conventional wisdom and advocating for a more comprehensive approach to healthcare.

The journey of Andrew Taylor Still from traditional medicine to the foundation of osteopathy is a testament to the power of individual vision and perseverance in the face of adversity. His revolutionary insights not only transformed the practice of medicine but also paved the way for a new paradigm of healthcare focused on promoting wellness and vitality.”

American Medicine in the Mid-19th Century: A Crucial Transition to Modernity

In the mid-19th century, American medicine faced many challenges, characterized by poorly trained practitioners and the application of harsh therapeutic methods. This era was marked by a lack of formal education among doctors, with most pursuing apprenticeships or practicing without any structured background in medicine. The apprenticeship system, typically lasting three years or more, provided a pragmatic but inconsistent education. Preceptor qualifications varied, leading to disparities in the quality of teaching. The popularity of this system stemmed from its economic advantages for teachers and the affordable labor it provided for students, who thus acquired the knowledge necessary to meet public expectations.

With the emergence of medical colleges, the goal was to supplement the training of practitioners with formal lectures and demonstrations. However, the quality of education at these institutions was questionable, driven by financial interests rather than a commitment to comprehensive learning. AT Still, beginning his medical career in 1854, initially acquired his medical knowledge through practical experience alongside his father and self-study.

Medical thought and practice during this period was highly speculative and empirical. Benjamin Rush, a leading figure of the era, believed in physiological tension as the basis of all disease, advocating bloodletting as an effective treatment. This practice has become widespread, even for acute illnesses, with some practitioners recommending bleeding patients into unconsciousness. The popularity of such practices persisted until the 1850s, despite the disqualification of Rush’s theories.

Another frequently used remedy was calomel, a mercury compound known for its powerful cathartic effects. However, its use was accompanied by serious side effects, including stomatitis, excessive salivation, ulcerated lips, and even death. A.T. Still himself suffered the consequences, using a partial set of dentures due to loosening of his teeth from mercury salivation.

In addition to calomel, other toxic pharmaceuticals such as arsenic, antimony, tartar emetic, lobelia, strychnine, and belladonna were commonly used. Only a few useful agents, such as quinine for malaria, colchicine for gout, opium for pain, and digitalis for dropsy, were available. However, these were often used for a variety of ailments beyond their original purposes.

Despite these challenges, not all orthodox physicians adhered to symptomatic management. Jacob Bigelow, as early as 1835, introduced the concept of “self-limiting diseases”, emphasizing that some diseases had inherent limits in their progression. He argued that drastic or heroic measures did not significantly improve patients’ chances of recovery. However, the medical community, as a whole, continued to employ depleting measures.

Medical Revolution in the 19th Century: Holmes and Semmelweis, Pioneers of Infection Control

In 1860, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., expressed frustration with prevalent medical practices, claiming that sinking all materia medica to the bottom of the sea would be better for humanity. Despite such criticism, the medical community resisted significant change, with doctors feeling compelled to act rather than passively observe, aligned with the expectations of their patients.

By the mid-19th century, maternal mortality rates in European and American maternity wards were significantly higher than in those attended by midwives or for home births, mainly due to puerperal fever. Doctors, often performing autopsies on dead women without protective gear, were unknowingly spreading deadly bacteria to expectant mothers.

Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. (1809-1894), an American physician, poet, and author, played a crucial role in solving this problem. Studying in Paris, he learned statistical analysis to challenge ineffective medical practices. In 1846 he coined the term “anesthesia” and in 1860 criticized the predominant drugs.

Holmes focused on puerperal fever after a lecture in 1842. Although his 1843 research into the contagiousness of puerperal fever initially went unnoticed, it gained attention in 1855. Holmes suggested burning clothing and instruments contaminated and to abstain from obstetrical practice for six months.

His study, similar to the work of Semmelweis, preceded germ theory. Despite the skepticism encountered, Holmes made a significant contribution to the understanding of contagious infections. Although debates persist over credit, both Semmelweis and Holmes deserve credit for advocating handwashing, a universal practice for infection control, including in the fight against COVID-19.

In Kansas’ early history, malaria and smallpox were the leading causes of adult mortality. Quinine, known for its effectiveness against malaria, was expensive and difficult to obtain, contributing to the challenges faced by early settlers. Additionally, diseases such as typhoid fever, pneumonia, scarlet fever, typhus, dysentery, and meningitis had no effective therapies, further complicating medical practice.

AT Still, although he initially used generally accepted medications in his practice, began to question regular medicine more seriously after a personal tragedy involving spinal meningitis in his family. This event inspired him to explore alternative systems of practice, marking the beginning of a transformative journey in his approach to medicine. As he reflected on this pivotal moment, he compared himself to Columbus, trimming his sail and launching his craft as an explorer into uncharted territories of medical knowledge.

An Era of Non-Drug Medicines: The Emergence of Alternative Systems

“The Lightning Bonesetter,” chronicles the evolution of Dr. Andrew Still, who in the 1870s became deeply involved in bonebreaking, a generally manipulative practice. related to orthopedics. By exploring these innovative techniques, he harbored ambitions to expand the range of disorders he could treat, paving the way for a significant expansion of his clientele and revenue.

These scavengers were an ancient, if sometimes despised, group of healers. In England, they enjoyed relatively free practice among the working classes, unable to pay a regular doctor and often struggling to find one willing to treat them. These harvesters could also count on the patronage of the upper classes, including royalty. Their special talent was widely believed to be passed down from generation to generation within a family, thus constituting a gift transcending formal learning.

In addition to reducing dislocations, they also manipulated painful and diseased joints, believing that these conditions were also caused by a “displaced bone.” Doctors ridiculed their crude diagnoses and rejected their assertion that such treatment had any value. However, some patients with restricted joint mobility, unrelieved after treatment by qualified orthopedists, appeared to benefit from the manipulative therapy administered by these “quacks.”

In 1867, the eminent surgeon Sir James Paget aroused the astonishment of his peers by making a bold claim: he firmly believed that bone reducers held the power to cure certain joint conditions, regardless of the often imprecise diagnoses of the time.

This groundbreaking statement laid the foundation for a new perspective on healthcare, challenging established paradigms and paving the way for further exploration of the possibilities offered by bone reduction techniques. The idea that practitioners could directly influence the treatment of joint disorders, despite the diagnostic limitations of the time, sparked a lively debate among the medical community of the time, opening the door to future developments in the field. field of medicine and bone manipulation.

Dr Wharton P Hood makes sense of Bonesetters

In 1871, Dr. Wharton Hood, a friend of Paget’s, published a book based on his experiences as an apprentice bonesetter.

He described the technique of these bone-setters as:

“  To resist alternately flexion and extension is the pons asinorum of manipulators, and, in considerable experience of teaching massage, I found that few people could learn to do it. Its importance cannot be overstated as a means of cultivating strength in weakened muscles, whilst at the same time discovering the extent to which they can be used. Many patients who have recovered from an old injury remain as incapacitated as before, because their latent energies can only be discovered and put to use in this way. Halfway between passive and resistive movements, in the context of certain recoveries, are assistance movements. They are little understood and rarely used. They can be illustrated as follows: Suppose that, in the absence of adhesions and irreparable damage to the nerve centers, the deltoid has only half the strength necessary to raise the arm. As far as any utility goes, it’s as if there is no contraction capacity left in the muscle. But if only the other half of the weakened vigor is supplemented by the carefully graded assistance of the operator, the required movement will occur; and, in some cases, if this is regularly continued, with manipulation and percussion, a more vigorous contraction will be obtained, and, little by little, the patient will exert three-fourths of the necessary force, and later, the whole movement will be done without help; and, as the force increases, resistance may be presented to the movement. Partial loss of motion can often be accurately estimated by holding the limb suspended in tissue attached to a spring. When the patient makes an effort, the limb weighs less. By means of a spring, the resistive movement can also be estimated. Another type of movement can also be discussed, namely vigorous passive movement, with the aim of breaking up adhesions in and around the joints, a description which is beyond the scope of this article. This is the secret of the success and failure of those who call themselves bone-setters, whose methods have been well studied and explained by Dr. Wharton P. Hood, of London, in his very interesting book “On Bone-Setting, so called “. »

Wharton P. Hood, in his extensive studies, had a strong belief in the effectiveness of the method he advocated for treating a diverse range of musculoskeletal problems. He said this approach was particularly beneficial in treating stiffness, pain and adhesion resulting from fractures and sprains. These conditions, often associated with reduced mobility and feelings of discomfort, seemed to find a positive response to the method advocated by Hood.

Additionally, Hood considered this method an effective way to treat joint problems, such as rheumatic or gouty joints. These conditions, characterized by inflammation and joint pain, were targeted by the specific manipulation and technique he advocated. Likewise, displaced cartilage, subluxations of the carpal and tarsal bones were also listed as conditions that could benefit from this approach.

Displaced tendons, a problem that can cause loss of function and considerable discomfort, were also among the areas where Hood was seeing positive results with his method. Likewise, hysterical joints, characterized by varied and often complex symptoms, were considered responsive to this treatment technique.

Expanding its scope further, Hood identified lymph node swellings as another area where this method could provide benefit. The ability of this approach to treat such varied conditions demonstrated, in his opinion, notable versatility in the treatment of musculoskeletal and joint disorders.

This expanded perspective on the applications of Hood’s method suggests that his in-depth understanding of musculoskeletal mechanisms allowed him to develop a holistic approach to addressing various problems. His contribution to this field, as outlined in his book “On Bone-Setting, so called”, continues to be studied and considered in the context of evolving musculoskeletal medicine and treatment practices.

However, Hood cautioned against bone-setters being successful only when the joints’ ability to pivot had not already been irreparably destroyed.

He observed that most bonesetters focused on manipulating the extremities, but also treated people complaining of back pain, cured by flexion and extension movements with pressure on painful points, often accompanied by sounds of ” clicking sound” emitted by the joints of the spine.

The article highlights the presence of bone-setters in the United States since colonial times, citing the Sweet family as the most prominent practitioners in New England. However, the spread of these manipulators across the country remains unclear. The author speculates on how Still became the “lightning healer” in the 1880s, suggesting that he may have learned from another practitioner’s observations.

Wharton Hood method

Wharton P. Hood was a renowned practitioner who specialized in a treatment method called bone-setting. Although the precise details of his method may vary, particularly in the context of his writings and training, the general approach involved manual manipulations aimed at restoring the alignment of bones and joints. Here is a general view of certain aspects of his method:

1. Joint manipulations: Hood’s method focused on the manual manipulation of joints and bones. He believed in the importance of restoring natural alignment to improve function and reduce pain.
2. Treatment of Fractures and Sprains: Hood paid particular attention to the treatment of fractures and sprains, with emphasis on restoring mobility and normal function while minimizing associated stiffness and pain.
3. Treatment of rheumatic and gouty conditions: Hood’s method was also intended to relieve the symptoms of rheumatic and gouty conditions. The manipulations were aimed at reducing inflammation and improving mobility in the affected joints.
4. Correction of Displaced Cartilage and Subluxations: For cases of displaced cartilage and subluxations of the carpal and tarsal bones, Hood advocated specific manipulations to restore proper alignment.
5. Treatment of Displaced Tendons: Manipulations were used to treat displaced tendons, thereby restoring normal muscle function and improving mobility.
6. Assistive approach: Hood also explored assistive movements, where the practitioner helped the patient perform movements to gradually strengthen weakened muscles while promoting recovery.

Why Wharton Hood was an important figure in the advancement of osteopathy

Wharton P. Hood has emerged as a significant figure in the advancement of osteopathy because of his essential contributions to the understanding and promotion of musculoskeletal treatment methods. His fame stems mainly from his expertise in the field of “bone-setting”, a practice which has helped to shape the evolution of osteopathy.

One of the key reasons for Hood’s importance is his ability to systematize and explain the fundamental principles of bone marrow. His book entitled “  On Bone-Setting, so called  ” played a crucial role in documenting his observations, methods and clinical results. This work has contributed to establishing a theoretical and practical basis for bone marrow, thus offering practitioners and researchers new perspectives on the treatment of musculoskeletal disorders.

Hood was also a pioneer in recognizing the diversity of conditions that could benefit from bone marrow. By highlighting its effectiveness in treating problems ranging from post-fracture stiffness to rheumatic conditions, from displaced cartilage to displaced tendons, it has broadened the scope of osteopathy. This holistic approach helped establish the idea that musculoskeletal dysfunctions could be addressed in an integrated manner, considering the entire system rather than isolated symptoms.

Additionally, Hood played a crucial role in disseminating and promoting the principles of bone marrow. His influence helped bring attention to the practice and increased interest among health practitioners. This has contributed to the progressive integration of bone marrow into the broader spectrum of osteopathy, thus contributing to enrich and diversify the available therapeutic approaches.

As an experienced practitioner and keen observer, Hood also made valuable contributions to the understanding of human anatomy and physiology, particularly in the context of bone movement and alignment. His observations were a pillar for future generations of osteopaths, providing important practical and theoretical perspectives in the development of this discipline.

Thus, Wharton P. Hood played a crucial role in the advancement of osteopathy by consolidating bone marrow as a viable therapeutic method, broadening its scope of application, and sharing his knowledge through his work. His contribution continues to influence the practice of osteopathy and remains an integral part of the history of this medical discipline.

1880: Still’s Revelation – Flexion and Extension Procedures Redefine Musculoskeletal Treatments

Still’s key revelation came around 1880 when he discovered that sudden flexion and extension procedures were not limited to orthopedic problems, providing a more reliable means of healing than simple spinal massage. It tells the story of an Irish lady suffering from asthma, successfully treated by adjusting her spine and some ribs, which inspired her to expand her treatments to various ailments such as headaches, heart disease , facial and arm paralysis, lower back pain, sciatica, rheumatism, varicose veins, and many others by manipulating the vertebrae into their “correct position”. Still merges elements of magnetic healing and bone reduction into a unified doctrine, attributing the effects of disease to fluid obstruction or imbalance, caused by misplaced bones, particularly of the spine, interfering with nerve supply regulating blood circulation.

Over the next decade, Still traveled throughout Missouri promoting his new approach, performing public demonstrations of hip reduction, attracting local attention and generating excitement. Despite his difficulties in communicating his ideas, with speeches saturated with disconcerting metaphors and an atypical appearance, his reputation grew. Paradoxically, it was after having acquired notoriety elsewhere that the inhabitants of Kirksville began to frequent it in large numbers. One particular incident, where he successfully treated the town pastor’s daughter, helped change his image and lower the social barriers that prevented him from treating “respectable people”. Convinced of his discovery of a new science of healing, Still decided to make Kirksville his permanent base and established an infirmary in 1889. Patients flocking from far and wide enhanced his reputation and fame, convincing him that he had created a new science. However, it still lacks a suitable name. When thinking about terms such as allopathy,

Alternative Medical Systems

Several very different medical movements emerged in America beginning in the 19th century. The first significant threat to orthodox medicine in America was led by Samuel Thomson (1769-1843), a crude, self-educated individual who posited that all disease was due to the body’s inability to maintain its natural heat. As therapy, he rejected bloodletting and calomel, instead using herbal remedies that caused sweating and vomiting. Thomson questioned the legitimacy and integrity of the medical profession on several counts, arguing that orthodox doctors were often motivated by a desire to obtain higher fees by prolonging illness. He also challenged the idea that formal education was an unnecessary prerequisite for medical practice and criticized licensing laws meant to protect the public from “charlatans”, seeing them as a means of monopolizing the healing arts. Although ridiculed by orthodox physicians, Thomson’s criticisms resonated with many Americans in Jackson’s era, when the virtues of the common man were exalted and the granting of special privileges was frowned upon.

However, Thomson did not hesitate to obtain his own special privilege, obtaining a patent for his medical system and selling the family rights for its use at $20 per unit, with the slogan that every man could be his own doctor. Mobilized by Thomson into “friendly societies,” his supporters lobbied intensively in state legislatures against existing licensing laws that restricted medical practice to orthodox physicians. By the 1840s, almost all of these laws had been repealed, amended, or rendered ineffective. This meant that anyone could practice medicine virtually anywhere in the country without fear of prosecution, a situation that persisted for several decades.

A distinctly different and more intellectual threat to the medical establishment was presented by homeopathy, adopted by thousands of American-educated physicians trained in the orthodox tradition. This movement was originally started in Germany by Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843), a scholarly university graduate who, like Thomson, opposed the standard remedies then in use. In the 1790s, Hahnemann began experiments on himself, recording the physiological reactions produced by various drugs. The first medicine he tested was the bark of the cinchona tree, from which quinine is derived. He discovered that if he ingested it while he was perfectly healthy, his body would manifest many of the symptoms of malaria. This led him to conclude that the drug best able to cure a given disease was the one that produced most of its symptoms in a healthy person. Other agents were tested by Hahnemann and his followers, who found the use of homeopathic remedies, or “similia similibus curentur”, particularly effective, especially when administered in extremely small quantities.

Homeopaths developed their own comprehensive materia medica and offered their system as a substitute for the practices of orthodox physicians, whom they termed allopaths. The allopath, Hahnemann declared, was one who would propose treatments that produced completely opposite effects of disease when administered to a healthy person. Over the decades, however, the term allopathic lost its original meaning and became a convenient label used by all alternative medical movements to describe “regular” or “orthodox” doctors.

The rapid growth of homeopathy can be easily understood. His followers did not administer toxic levels of the standard pharmaceutical drugs of the day, nor did they use bloodletting. Thus, patients only had to endure the disease, not the treatment.

An Era of Non-Drug Medicines: The Emergence of Alternative Systems

“During the 19th century, several drug-free medical systems emerged and found some success in gathering followers. One early initiative was the “popular health movement,” led by Sylvester Graham (1794–1851), a temperance orator who in the 1830s began lecturing against gluttony, improper clothing, sexual permissiveness, and medications, while advocating bathing, fresh air, exercise, and dietary changes. Graham argued that man was heading toward physical degeneration by not living according to the laws of nature. Some of his arguments seemed reasonable, such as the lack of regular bathing at the time, the unbalanced diet, and restrictive clothing for women. However, some of his ideas, notably his ramblings about the supposed evils of too frequent sexual encounters, were based on “sublimated puritanism.”

In 1839, Graham published a collection of lectures that became bestsellers. He claimed that following the principles outlined in his book would make medicines and doctors useless. He said followers would be less likely to get sick, and if they did get sick, they wouldn’t be affected as badly. By allowing their natural self-healing powers to express themselves, they would recover more quickly. Graham eliminated certain “unhealthy” foods such as meat, fresh milk, eggs, coffee, tea, and pastries. Its substitutes were always bland and tasteless; the best known of these was a cookie that still bears his name, originally designed to reduce not only hunger, but also sexual appetite. Its critics were quick to point out that its ultimate goal seemed to be to remove fun not only from the kitchen, but also from the bedroom.

Although Graham claimed that his system was all-inclusive, a number of his disciples were among those who began frequenting the offices of another group of drug-free practitioners, the hydropaths. An Austrian farmer named Victor Priessnitz (1799–1851) had discovered that cold water seemed quite effective in treating many chronic illnesses in humans and animals, including gout and rheumatism. Before long, his approach caused a small sensation in Europe, and several health establishments were opened on the continent to teach and practice his methods.

Hydropathy was exported to America in the 1840s. Its proponents founded two medical schools, and by the mid-1850s at least twenty-seven health resorts were in operation, primarily in rural areas of the East. and the Midwest, where the water was considered the purest. The treatment mainly consisted of drinking the precious liquid and wrapping one’s body in it. According to Marshall Legan,

“  a sheet of cotton or linen soaked in cold water was spread over several thick woolen blankets… Everything was covered with an eiderdown, and the patient remained in his cocoon from twenty-five minutes to several hours, in depending on the severity of his condition and his ability to sweat profusely. Then the victim was stripped naked, and cold water poured over him, or he was plunged into a cold bath and finally vigorously dry-rubbed.  »

Obviously, “heroic therapy  ” could also be practiced by healers without drugs.

Still’s familiarity with the notions of Graham and hydropathy can be traced back to his youth, when, in a utopian colony following a combination of these ideas, he was established near the Shawnee Mission. This experimental community did not last long, but while it existed, Reverend Still had to be called upon several times to care for those who were unresponsive or suffering from the regime. No doubt, André was not particularly impressed then or later by these methods. Yet Still came to believe that the drug-free approach was the right one. It was simply a matter of finding a system that could provide a more logical basis for reliable diagnosis and effective treatment. In this sense, Still would find considerable guidance in the principles and practices of magnetic healing.

In 1774, Franz Mesmer (1734–1815), an Austrian physician, postulated that an invisible universal magnetic fluid circulated throughout the body and that too much or too little in one part or as a whole was one of the main causes of illness, especially nervous disorders. The only rational course of treatment was therefore to restore fluid balance. This could be accomplished by making passes over the body with magnets or one’s hands. Mesmer was not the first to heal through touch; rather, he was the first to shape this approach into a coherent system of medical practice.

Many of his early cures by this method were widely publicized, and soon he attracted patients from all over Austria. His success there was short-lived, however, as pressure from the medical community in his native Vienna forced his departure for Paris. In the French capital, Mesmer’s practices became more irregular. Instead of seeing clients separately and discreetly, he formed groups and cared for several patients at a time. Often he used a huge inner vat with extended “magnetized” rods.

The gathered people bathed together, placing the afflicted parts of their bodies against the metal protrusions, until Mesmer materialized. As an orchestra played solemn music, he entered the room dressed in a flowing lilac robe and touched his patients as he passed. This was designed to bring each individual to a near-seizure state, which Mesmer believed was often necessary to achieve catharsis. The vat was not his only place of healing. Clients were also treated in the open air, under “magnetized” trees or next to “magnetized” rocks.

In 1784, as Mesmer’s practice grew in popularity, two special commissions were created to investigate the relative merits of his claims. One of these groups was named by the French Academy of Sciences and included Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvan Bailly and Antoine Lavoisier. This committee declared that a “magnetic fluid” did not exist, that Mesmer’s cures were only the result of suggestion, and that the morals of women undergoing such treatment were threatened. According to them, during an induced crisis, women could become easy targets of seduction. » With the appearance of this study, Mesmer’s personal influence declined. Some of his followers, believing his fundamental principles to be valid, abandoned the vat and other questionable procedures and continued to attempt to gain respectability. Over the next decades, they made progress. In 1831, a somewhat favorable report on the subject was published by the French Academy of Medicine, and indirect support came later, in the writings of James Braid (1795–1860) on what would eventually be called the hypnosis. “ 

One of the techniques he developed was the “slant gaze upward and inward” induction method of James Braid, a Scottish surgeon and pioneer in the field of hypnosis. Braid made significant contributions to the understanding and practice of hypnosis in the 19th century.

The “gaze up and inward” induction involves instructing the subject to fix their gaze on a fixed point above their line of sight while simultaneously converging their eyes inward. This combination of looking upward and inward is intended to induce a state of heightened concentration and focus, thereby facilitating the process of hypnotic induction.

Braid believed that this specific eye movement could result in a state of mental concentration and suggestibility, essential components of the hypnotic trance. The technique aimed to modify the subject’s state of consciousness and make them more receptive to hypnotic suggestions.

It is important to note that although Braid has made significant contributions to the understanding of hypnosis, the field has evolved, and contemporary hypnotic techniques may differ. The “oblique gaze upward and inward” method, however, remains a historical part of the development of hypnotic induction techniques.

Magnetic healing was introduced to the United States in 1836 by Charles Poyen (d: 1844), who gave a series of public lectures in Boston and took a number of students, training them in massage and other methods then considered useful in restoring fluid balance.50 Poyen’s activities helped generate considerable interest in magnetic healing, and although his stay in America was relatively brief, the seed he planted was quickly germinated without it. One of those who is said to have heard Poyen lecture was Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802–65), who later established a practice consisting mainly of verbal suggestions combined with light caresses of the body. Although Quimby’s writings were not published until after his death, he was an influential figure during his lifetime, serving as a physician, teacher, and inspiration to Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), the founder of Christian Science. Quimby’s ideas also provided the intellectual source for the loose confederation of religious groups known as “New Thought.”

The best known mesmerizer before the Civil War was Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910), who was also America’s leading advocate of spiritualism. In the first volume of his enormous tome, The Great Harmania (1850), Davis sought to combine the two belief systems.

Conceiving the body as a machine, he maintained that health was simply the harmonious interaction of all parts of man in the performance of their respective functions. This was due to the free and unobstructed flow of the “mind”. Any decrease or imbalance in this “fluid” would cause disease. Like others before him, Davis emphasized healing through the hands. Of particular interest was his treatment of asthma, which in part included vigorous rubbing along the spine.

Although this type of treatment was a small feature of Davis’s practice, later magnetizers, perhaps influenced by the attention paid to the spine by orthodox European medical researchers such as Charles Bell (1774–1842), Francis Magendie (1783–1855), and Marshall Hall (1790–1857), made extensive use of manipulation. One of them was Warren Felt Evans (1817–89), whose name is most often associated with “mental healing.” In his book Mental Medicine (1872), which went through fifteen reprints, Evans noted:

“By rubbing the hand along the spine, an invigorating and revitalizing influence is transmitted to all the organs within the trunk cavity. The hand of benevolence, of purity, of sympathy, applied here by friction combined with light pressure, is a singularly effective remedy against the morbid state of the internal organs. It is always a pleasant medicine to take. »

These sentiments were echoed in the book Vital Magnetism (1874), written by another folk healer, Edwin Dwight Babbitt (1828–1905). He specifically mentioned convulsions, apoplexy, sunburn, headaches, muscular ailments, ordinary rheumatism, and paralysis as disorders that could be cured by spinal treatments. It is unclear whether Still read these works by Davis, Evans, and Babbitt; however, he was well aware of their message. A letter co-signed by him to

editors of the Banner of Light indicates that he was a reader of this journal, oriented towards spiritualism and magnetic healing, and published articles and advertisements from these practitioners in its pages.

Although Still never adopted all of the ideas of his contemporaries, a number of the main principles of magnetic healing made a strong impression on him: the metaphor of man as a divinely ordained machine; health as the harmonious interaction of all parts of the body and the unobstructed flow of fluid; and of course, the use of spinal manipulation. Its most significant difference with them would be on the nature of the fluid. Although he spoke obliquely about the physiological role of magnetic energy for the rest of his life, he believed that free blood flow was the key to health. “I proclaimed,” he later wrote, “that a disturbed artery marked the beginning of an hour and a minute when disease began to sow its seeds of destruction in the human body. That in no case could this be done without a broken or suspended arterial blood flow itself. One who wished to successfully solve the problem of disease or deformity of any kind in every case without exception would find one or more obstructions in an artery or vein. »

In June 1874, Still severed his ties to conventional medicine, an action that shocked his community. Many of his friends and relatives, in reaction to his strange theories and especially to his “laying on of hands”, questioned his sanity. The local minister, seeing him as an agent of the devil, had him expelled from the Methodist Church. Still requested permission to explain his practice at nearby Baker University, a school he had helped establish, but was denied the privilege. Effectively ostracized at Baldwin, Still went to Macon, Missouri, to visit a brother and see if public acceptance of his newly adopted ideas and methods would be better there. It was not the case. After a few months treating only a small number of patients, he moved to Kirksville, located in northeast Missouri, where, to his surprise, “three or four thoughtful people” actually welcomed him. The town then had a population of eighteen hundred and was the commercial capital of Adair County, which had a total population of about thirteen thousand. In a local newspaper, the North Missouri Register, he advertised himself: “AT STILL, MAGNETIC HEALER, Rooms in the Reid Building, south side of the square, above Chinn’s store.” Office Hours – Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., with a one-hour break from noon to 1 p.m. » Although his practice in this new location was not initially successful, he was comforted that there was no organized persecution by either the clergy or local doctors. Still could also go about his business without much interference from the state. In August 1874, while in Macon, he registered with the county clerk as a physician and surgeon, thereby protecting himself from prosecution for the illegal practice of medicine. Because of the initial tolerance he had enjoyed in Kirksville, he moved his family there in May of the following year.

In the fall of 1876, Still contracted typhoid fever, the effects of which left him disabled for more than six months. After making a full recovery, Still realized that his local clientele would be too small to support his loved ones and repay debts incurred during his illness. In desperation, he applied for a federal army pension, but his application was denied because his service during the Civil War had been entirely in state militias. With few patients in Kirksville, it was necessary to expand its population base. Still became an itinerant practitioner. He traveled for extended periods to several communities across the state, while his wife and children remained in Kirksville. For the next few years, Still’s earnings struggled to keep up with his expenses. On various occasions his relatives offered him financial assistance if he returned to orthodox medicine, but he flatly refused.

The Challenges and Triumphs of Osteopathy: Between Myths, Perceptions and Practical Realities

The newly installed osteopath’s main mission was to create a favorable impression among the city’s inhabitants. The term “osteopathy” sometimes gave rise to misunderstandings, with some wrongly thinking that it was limited to bone conditions. In their advertisements, osteopaths explained that osteopathy was an independent health care system, distinct from faith healing or other medical approaches.

Despite these explanations, skepticism persisted, with some patients confusing osteopathy with esoteric practices such as theosophy or magnetic healing. Osteopaths often found themselves in the delicate position of having to devote time to demystifying these confusions. Additionally, some patients expressed concerns related to their religious beliefs, asking questions about the practitioner’s Christian affiliation.

In this context, osteopaths persuasively emphasized their role as “anatomical engineers,” with in-depth knowledge of the location of each element of the body and its significance for overall health. They often compared their approach to the necessary adjustment of a musical instrument or motor, putting forward the idea that just as these objects require periodic tuning, the human body also requires adjustments to maintain or restore health.

On the contrary, a considerable number of practitioners preferred a more assertive, nevertheless successful, approach, highlighting the superiority of osteopathy compared to traditional medicine. Many osteopaths published detailed lists of the diseases they claimed to treat with particular success, providing specific percentage cure rates for various conditions. Testimonials from satisfied patients also played a crucial role in their marketing strategy. The early clientele of osteopaths across the country consisted primarily of people dealing with chronic problems, repeating the patterns seen in Kirksville.

During their twenty months of practice in Nashville, Dr. JR Schackleford reflected on encountering many cases where patients had exhausted traditional medical avenues, turning to osteopathy as a final option. He emphasized that whether they are the first or last resort for patients, the key was to achieve the desired results. Although reports in the Journal of Osteopathy occasionally address acute infectious disorders, they represent a minor portion of the average osteopathic caseload.

WL Riggs, DO, noted a predominant belief among the public that osteopathy was particularly suited to treating long-standing and chronic cases. However, there was a common perception that its results were relatively slower in countering the rapid processes associated with what are commonly called acute illnesses. This dichotomy of perception highlights the nuanced considerations surrounding the application and effectiveness of osteopathy across different medical conditions.

Osteopaths generally informed patients that rapid recoveries were exceptional, emphasizing the need to adopt realistic expectations. Dr AL Evans warned against overly optimistic advertising, urging practitioners to avoid promising miraculous short-term results. He felt it was more prudent to convey the need to take time to eliminate toxins and induce normal organ function.

To align patient expectations with the progressive nature of osteopathic treatment, practitioners typically charged a monthly fee, often $25 for four weeks of care. Flexible pricing tiering was established for extended treatment periods. However, this organization posed the challenge of patients expecting numerous sessions during the month, regardless of their condition. To remedy this, a customary limit of three treatments per week per client was established, avoiding a possible overload.

Fatigue was a considerable factor, as each session could last up to an hour, impacting both patient and practitioner. Despite these challenges, early osteopaths, as reported in letters to the Journal of Osteopathy and other periodicals, often claimed to be successful in earning a living. They highlighted the growing popularity of osteopathy, customer satisfaction and the expansion of their patient base.

Although these self-congratulatory reports paint a positive picture, they do not provide the complete picture. The newspaper also featured notices of osteopaths changing addresses, indicating the challenges some practitioners were facing. Not all osteopaths viewed osteopathy as a financially stable endeavor; some abandoned the practice altogether. The reasons for business failures varied, including public apathy, failure to impress clientele, and sometimes opposition from local doctors using existing medical licensing laws to hinder the establishment of osteopaths.

In summary, while many osteopaths celebrated success and growth, the reality for others was marked by challenges, changes of address and, in some cases, abandonment of osteopathic practice.

The Extraordinary Journey of Andrew Taylor Still: From Traditional Medicine to the Foundation of Osteopathy

During the 19th century, several revolutionary medical movements emerged in the United States, posing significant challenges to orthodox medicine. One such movement was led by Samuel Thomson, an autodidact who rejected conventional medical practices, instead advocating the use of botanical remedies to induce sweating and vomiting in patients. Thomson questioned the legitimacy of the medical profession, accusing regular physicians of prolonging illnesses to increase their fees and opposing licensing laws which he believed served to monopolize the healing arts. Although ridiculed by orthodox physicians, Thomson successfully mobilized his supporters to influence state legislatures, resulting in the repeal or amendment of many medical licensing laws.

Another intellectual challenge to orthodox medicine emerged with the adoption of homeopathy in the United States. Initiated in Germany by Samuel Hahnemann, this medical approach was based on the principle of “like cures like,” using remedies that caused symptoms similar to those of the disease. Homeopaths developed their own medical system, positioning themselves as an alternative to orthodox practitioners, whom they called allopaths. Despite criticism of the effectiveness of infinitesimal doses, homeopathy has gained popularity by avoiding the administration of toxic levels of conventional medications.

Before 1860, many homeopaths were trained in orthodox medical schools, but after the Civil War they were expelled from the American Medical Association. This led to the establishment of their own schools and hospitals. Although homeopathic training was as comprehensive as that of allopaths, the split in homeopathy led to the formation of eclectic medicine. Under Wooster Beach’s leadership, the Eclectics rejected the use of mineral-based medicines in favor of resinous medicines, founding their schools before and after the Civil War. However, these eclectic schools were often academically deficient, producing doctors who were less well trained than their orthodox counterparts.

Despite their differences, unorthodox medical movements thrived, accounting for about 15% of doctors at their peak. This diversity included the primarily urban homeopaths and the primarily rural eclectics. The success of these alternative movements prompted some orthodox doctors to reevaluate their practices, gradually abandoning heroic treatments.

Thus, within these medical reforms, Andrew Still, founder of osteopathy, observed that they often offered less harmful diets to patients than regular doctors, although their approach remained empirical and ineffective according to his observations. Still, a Methodist and teetotaler, developed a moral concern about medication use. He questioned the scientific nature of the medication, believing it to be as immoral as alcohol abuse. Convinced that ignorance in medical schools was to blame, he set out to explore a different path, moving away from internal medication and laying the foundations of osteopathy.

In conclusion, 19th-century medical movements in the United States posed diverse challenges to orthodox medicine. Figures such as Samuel Thomson and Samuel Hahnemann challenged established practices, paving the way for alternative approaches like homeopathy and eclecticism. These movements influenced legislation and prompted a reevaluation of orthodox medical practices. In this context, Andrew Still developed his own approach, basing osteopathy on different principles, while criticizing the medical practices of his time.

Legal Conflicts and Institutional Recognition of Osteopathy

The attitude of orthodox doctors towards osteopaths varied considerably, with some considering them harmless and others seeing them as charlatans. The attitude of doctors (MD) often depended on the behavior of osteopaths. If an osteopath worked discreetly, conflicts were less likely; however, those who made grandiose claims and insinuated collusion between MDs and undertakers attracted legal trouble.

Legal clashes took place during arrests, with osteopaths arguing that jealousy and fear motivated such actions. While some osteopaths chose to leave town after legal confrontations, others chose to fight, and most managed to prevail.

An early legal case involved Charles Still, the founder’s son, in Red Wing, Minnesota, in 1893. Arrested for illegal practice during a diphtheria epidemic, public support led to the charges being dropped. Similar legal challenges faced Audrey Moore, DO, in Macon, Illinois, who was jailed but released when patients testified about its benefits.

Some osteopaths have initiated legal action against MDs. In 1898, Harry Lee Nelson, DO, sued the Kentucky Board of Health, demanding an examination and licensing or an end to the threats. Although initially unsuccessful, Nelson won in the Court of Appeal the following year, guaranteeing the right of any DO to practice osteopathy without interference.

The definition of the practice of medicine has become a legal focal point in many state courts. The MDs argued for a broad interpretation, while the DOs insisted that it referred only to the administration of drugs. By 1904, only Nebraska agreed with MD, with other states interpreting “medicine” narrowly. The debates extended beyond the courts to state legislatures, where MDs sought to ban osteopathy, and DOs sought to establish standards of practice.

Vermont was the first to act, granting any graduate of the American School of Osteopathy the right to practice. North Carolina followed, with one patient, Helen DeLenderecie, advocating for osteopathy after her successful treatment. Acceptance of osteopathy faced challenges, including support from Mark Twain in New York, but by 1901, 15 states had passed laws governing osteopathic practice.

Despite initial skepticism, osteopathy has become a formidable competitor to orthodox medicine, challenging the dominance of MDs. Legal struggles and legislative battles underscored the growing institutionalization of osteopathy as a legitimate medical practice at the turn of the century.

The Transatlantic Therapeutic Bridge: Swedish Mechanotherapy and American Osteopathy through the Eyes of Mark Twain

Mechanotherapy, rooted in the principles of gymnastics and physiotherapy, plays a central role in the context of the connection between European mechanotherapy and American osteopathy, as discussed in the writings of Mark Twain. Twain’s letter to AT Still in 1900 highlights the influence of Swedish mechanotherapy on the vision of osteopathy.

Swedish mechanotherapy, emanating from the Royal Central School of Gymnastic Instruction in Stockholm, where Jonas Kellgren completed his training in 1865, laid the foundations for physiotherapy in Europe. The principles of this approach are based on the use of movement, exercise and physical manipulation to promote health and treat various conditions. These methods were internalized by Kellgren and passed on to his students, including the young Swede mentioned in Twain’s letter.

The link between Swedish mechanotherapy and American osteopathy lies in the similarity of the fundamental principles. Twain, in his letter, suggests that the bases of Swedish mechanotherapy and American osteopathy are identical. It implicitly recognizes that physical manipulation and movement, characteristic of mechanotherapy, are key elements also present in osteopathy.

In the second example, the 1901 Journal of Osteopathy article reports Twain’s testimony in favor of licensing osteopaths in New York. Twain explicitly recognizes the benefits of osteopathy, emphasizing the services received in London by practitioners trained by Kellgren. This positive experience reinforces Twain’s perception of the effectiveness of osteopathy, in close connection with the principles of Swedish mechanotherapy.

Finally, the family link with the Cyriax, descendants of Kellgren, underlines the intergenerational transmission of knowledge on mechanotherapy. James Cyriax, grandson of Kellgren, and his father Edgar Cyriax, both trained at the Royal Central School of Gymnastic Instruction, contributed to the spread of these principles in Europe.

The Rise of Osteopathy Schools and Conflicts Between Still’s Disciples

During the legal battle, several Still graduates started their own schools. The first were the National School of Osteopathy (1895) in Kansas City, the Pacific College of Osteopathy (1896) in Los Angeles, and the Northern Institute of Osteopathy in Minneapolis (1896). In a few years, these schools, as well as the American School of Osteopathy, spread to Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Des Moines, Milwaukee, Chicago, Denver, and smaller cities such as Wilkes-Barre in Pennsylvania, Ottawa in Kansas, Franklin in Kentucky, Fargo in North Dakota, Keokuk in Iowa and Quincy in Illinois. By 1904, about half of the 4,000 practicing DOs had graduated from these alternative schools.

These schools had modest facilities initially, often in offices or converted residences. Admissions criteria were flexible, with an initial tuition fee of $500, lowered to $300-350 to remain competitive. Programs varied, some following the American School model with courses in anatomy, osteopathic diagnosis, and therapy, while others extended the length of study and range of topics. The teaching staff was limited, with sometimes instructors not having a DO degree or osteopathic training.

The equipment also differed, ranging from well-equipped laboratories to more modest facilities with a treatment table, a skeleton and a few posters. Recruitment pitches highlighted the satisfaction of healing naturally, but also the potential earnings, saying graduates could earn $250 to $800 per month.

Catalogs also targeted women, excluded from most regular medical schools, offering osteopathy as a noble alternative. About a fifth of graduates before 1910 were women.

Each school boasted of being the best, highlighting the quality of its facilities, equipment and staff. Rivalries with the American School were heated, with Still believing that its first graduates were unqualified to teach and that these schools were in unfair competition.

The National School of Osteopathy in Kansas City was specifically targeted by the American School, denouncing shorter courses and rumors of degrees for purchase. Tensions were such that legal investigations were carried out, but some schools skirted the rules.

The conflict also extended to schools like the Columbian School of Osteopathy, headed by Marcus Ward, a former associate of Still. Ward, self-proclaimed “co-founder of osteopathy”, had claimed methods similar to Still’s since 1862. Still’s criticism of Ward was fierce, denouncing his inclusion of materia medica in the curriculum.

These tensions between Still’s disciples illustrated the challenges of osteopathy’s rapid growth and the differences of vision that would shape its subsequent development.